Journal of Farming

Journal of Farming

Journal of Farming

Current Issue Volume No: 1 Issue No: 2

Research Article Open Access Available online freely Peer Reviewed Citation Provisional

Comparative Efficacy of Plant Leaf Oils and Carbofuran in the Management of Lepidopterous Maize Stemborers

1Entomology with specialization on insect pests of field crops, University of Calabar, Nigeria.

Abstract

Field bioassay to determine the efficacies of Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae) and Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae) in the management of maize stemborers was carried out at a plot of land located at satellite town, Calabar, Cross River State. The treatments consisted of leaf oils (1.0, 1.5 mls) of A. paniculata, V. amygdalina, a synthetic pesticide, Carbofuran at 1.0g and 1.5g a.i/ha which served as a standard, and an untreated control. The research was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three treatments and four replications. Treatments were applied at 5 and 7 weeks after planting and data were collected at 6 and 8 weeks after planting and at harvest. Parameters assessed included percent dead heart, plant heights, percent lodged stems, tunnel length, number of exit holes, egg mass, borer population and grain yield in kilograms. The result obtained showed that plots treated with leaf oils of A. paniculata, V. amygdalina and carbofurans significantly reduced (P < 0.05) the number of dead hearts, plant heights, percent lodged stems, tunnel length, number of exit holes, egg mass, borer population compared to the untreated (control). The result also revealed significant increase (P < 0.05) in grain yield in treated plots as plots treated with A. paniculata produced 17.81 kg, plots treated with V. amygdalina produced 18.26 kg, plots treated with carbofuran produced 20.47 kg compared to untreated plots which produced 8.56 kg. The results also indicated the percentage abundance of stemborer species collected in the cultivated plots, it showed that Busseolafusca was most abundant with a percentage of 32, followed by Sesemiacalamistis with a percentage of 25, Eldana saccharina 24% and Chilo partellus 19%. In conclusion, A. paniculata and V. amygdalina leaf oils could be recommended for use as alternatives to synthetic insecticides which are not environmentally friendly.

Author Contributions
Received 07 Aug 2024; Accepted 24 Jul 2025; Published 25 Jul 2025;

Copyright ©  2025 Uwah Ekaette Mfonobong

License
Creative Commons License     This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Citation:

Uwah Ekaette Mfonobong (2025) Comparative Efficacy of Plant Leaf Oils and Carbofuran in the Management of Lepidopterous Maize Stemborers. Journal of Farming - 1(2):27-41.

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Introduction

Maize (Zea mays L. Merri) is a plant in the grass family Gramineae, a tall annual plant with extensive fibrous root system (FAO.2002). It is the third most important cereal crop in the world after wheat and rice (FAO, 2002). In Nigeria, maize is known and called by different vernacular names like Masara (Hausa), Agbado (Yoruba), Oka (Igbo), Ibikpod (Efik). Maize is one of the major staple food crops widely cultivated and consumed in Africa due to its rich carbohydrate content (Rouanet, 1992).

In Nigeria, maize is grown in all agro-ecological zones mostly for its seeds either as dry grains or green maize with an estimate national production of 7.7million metric tonnes (Olaniyan, 2015). It is also called corn especially in the United State of America which is referred to as Corn Belt. It is usually stored to provide food reserve during off season and also as seed material for planting. Preparation and uses of maize alone or in combination with other food materials as staple food or snacks in Nigeria include: Ogi (in hot and cold forms), tuwo, donkumu, maasa, couscous, nakia, agbe, kokoro, elekube, abari, among others.

Maize is the most important cereal crop in sub-Saharan Africa. It is a staple food for an estimated 50% of the population (IITA, 2009). It is an important source of carbohydrate, protein, iron, vitamin B and minerals. Africans consume maize in many forms (such as porridges, pastes and beer). Green maize fresh on the cob is eaten baked, roasted or boiled. Every part of the maize plant has economic value: the grain, leaves, stalk, tassel, and cob can all be used to produce a large variety of food and non-food products (IITA, 2009). In sub-Saharan Africa, maize is mostly grown by small-scale farmers, generally for subsistence as part of mixed agricultural systems.

In Nigeria, maize crop is the first among the cereal crops grown (Romain, 2001). Cultivated throughout the ecological zones of Nigeria, maize is also demonstrated with a high yield potential in savanna regions (Mugo et al., 2005). It is the most cost-effective and highest yield plant resource in the world (Robert et al., 2014). It serves as a material for the production of livestock forage, fodder and feed in Sub-Saharan Africa (Davies & Pedigo, 1990), as well as raw material for manufacture of many industrial products (Romain, 2001) and has also been used as biofuel and is a raw material for brewing beer and for producing starch (Romain, 2001;Misra, 2009).

The most important field pests of maize are lepidopterous stem and cob borers belonging to the families of Noctuidaeand Pyralidae (Usua, 1968). They are: the African stalk borer (Busseolafusca Fuller), the spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus Swinhoe), the pink stem borer (Sesamiacalamistis Hampson) and the sugar cane borer (Eldana saccharina Walker). Stem borers interfere with the movement of water and metabolites through the plant's vascular system, which stunts its growth and development. Attacks during the first eight weeks after sowing result in “dead heart” and late damage (beyond eight weeks after sowing) leads to stem lodging. Both types of damage to the crop cause drastic loss in maize yield (Bosque-Perez, 1995).

Therefore, feeding activities can cause fenestration, thereby reducing the photosynthetic area of the leaves that result to poor yield (Ofor et al., 2009). Generally, the yield losses due to stem borers range from 10 to 100% (Bosque-Perez & Mereck 1990). Damage resulting from stem borer infestation on maize plant can cause between 20-40% losses during cultivation, and 30-90% at post-harvest and storage (Robert et al., 2014). They also reported that increased damage on young maize plants is as result of the soft nature of the stems and leaves. In Nigeria, 14.0% yield loss for early maize as a result of stem borer activities was reported (Okweche et al., 2013).The prevalence of B. fuscafollowed by S. calamistison the early- and/or late-sown maize at Makurdi, Benue State, Calabar, Cross River State, and South-western Nigeria has been established (Balogun et al, 2001; Okweche et al. 2010; Okweche & Umoetuk, 2012).

Controlling these insect pests is difficult because most part of their life cycles is spent inside the plant which serves as a physical protection to insecticide application (Vitale 2007). Synthetic insecticides have been used extensively in the past by farmers for the control of stem borers, but however, they have not been effective and are not easily biodegradable besides being expensive. (Clieve, 2003). However, in recent times much attention has been given to biopesticides especially in controlling insect pests both in the field and in the store (Ileke, 2015). The use of botanicals for the control of agricultural pests is considered to be environmentally friendly and also reduce the cost of insecticides in pest management (Maddonni et al., 2016).

Materials and Methods

Experimental Sites

This research was carried out in the late planting season of 2017. It was conducted from August 2017-November 2017, at a plot of land located at Satellite town, Calabar Municipal. Cross River State.

Preparation of Land and Planting

A portion of land measuring 50 x 50 m was cleared and pulverized using shovel and demarcated into plots. It was subsequently tilled using shovel to soften the land.The maize variety (white dent corn) obtained from the University of Calabar farm, was used for the study. The seeds were conveyed in a sealed polythene bag to the experimental site, and were later poured into a plastic basin. Water was added to the seeds in the basin, the seeds that floated on water were discarded as they were non-viable seeds while the ones that sank to the bottom were planted. Three seeds were planted manually at a spacing of 75 × 25 cm and a planting depth of 3 cm (Plate 1). The seedlings were thinned to two plants per stand at two weeks after planting. Hand weeding was carried out at 2 and 6 weeks after planting using weeding hoes and cutlasses (Plate 2) Compound fertilizer N.P.K (20:10:10) was applied in a ring at the rate of 90 kg N/ha, 45 kg P2O5/ha and 45 kg K2O/ha, this was to ensure normal growth and development of the plants (Ciampatti & Vyn, 2010)

Plate 1.The experimental farm after demarcation and planting
 The experimental farm after demarcation and planting

Plate 2.Weeding of experimental farm at two weeks after planting
 Weeding of experimental farm at two weeks after planting

Extraction of biopesticidal plants.

Fresh leaves of Andrographis paniculata and Vernonia amygdalina were harvested from University of Calabar Farm. The leaves were identified by a known traditional healer and certified at the herbarium of Department of Botany, University of Calabar. The leaves were washed thoroughly with tap water and air-dried at room temperature 27-30o c, to prevent loss of chemicals due to direct exposure to sunlight for twenty one days. The dried leaves were ground to a fine powder using Molino De Granos manual grinder and sieved through using a kitchen strainer. The powders were kept in sealed polythene bags at room temperature until when needed, to prevent quality loss (Chayengia et al., 2010).

Extraction of plant leaf oils

The leaf oils were extracted using soxhlet extractor (Plate 3), in the Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University Of Calabar, Calabar. A retort stand and clamp were used to support the soxhlet extract apparatus, following this, the solvent (250ml) of n-hexane was added to a round bottom flask which was attached to a soxhlet extractor apparatus condenser on a heating mantle. Fourteen grams (14g) of the powder was weighed using electronic weighing balance (AE Adams PW 254, AdamLab, U.S.A) into a 25x80mm thimble which was placed inside the extractor. The solvent was heated using a heating mantle and evaporate moving through the apparatus to the condenser. The condensate then dripped into the reservoir containing the thimble. Once the level of solvent reached the siphon, it poured back into the flask and the cycle began again. The process ran for a total of 16 hours and n-hexane was evaporated at 40-50o using a thermostatic water bath (F.-Nr., L508.0271) to obtain a syrupy residue.

Plate 3.Extraction of plant leaf oils
 Extraction of plant leaf oils

The oils were formulated by measuring 1.0 and 1.5mls of the oils into plastic containers, each of which was diluted with 2 mls of water and mixed with 1ml of soap (surfactant). The resulting solutions were stirred continuously using a wooden spatula for 5 minutes. Each of the solutions was then poured into a hand pump sprayer shortly before application in the farm.

Purchase of synthetic pesticide (carbofuran)

The commercial formulation of Furadan (Carbofuran 3% G) was obtained from a pesticide shop in Watt Market Calabar, Cross River State. Furadan 3G is a granular formulation that contains 3% pure furadan.

Experimental Design

The plots were divided into sub-plots to enhance the application of the different treatments and arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications and water treated which served as controls. The land was demarcated into eight blocks containing thirty-two sub plots. Each plot measured 4 × 2 m separated by adjacent plots measuring 0.5 m path while 1.0 m path was used to separate blocks.

The maize variety, white dent corn obtained from University of Calabar Farm was planted in the fourth week of August, 2017 (late planting). For each spray regime, the bio-insecticides were formulated as earlier described and applied with a hand pump sprayer, while the control sub-plots were sprayed with water only. Treatments used included oil of Andrographis paniculata (King of bitters), oil of Vernonia amygdalina (Bitter leaf) and carbofuran which served as a standard check and control which were sprayed with water only.

Treatments were applied 5 and 7 weeks after planting and were done by using hand pump sprayer. The carbofuran granules 1.0g and 1.5g were weighed using a weighing balance (AE Adams) and were applied by hand into furrow 4 cm from the plant.

Data collection

Data were collected on the following parameters; percent dead heart, egg mass and plant height at seedling stage. At harvest, 10 plants were randomly selected for tunnel length, borer population and species, percent lodged stems, number of exit holes and yield. Stemborer species were identified with reference (Polaszek 1998).

Determination of maize plant dead heart

The dead hearts of the maize plants caused by the activities of the stemborers were obtained at six weeks after planting. This was done in each of the treated and untreated plots by checking carefully for the plants suffering dead hearts. The number of the plants with dead hearts in each plot were counted and expressed as a percentage of the total number of plants within each plot.

Determination of maize plant heights

The heights of the plants on both the treated and untreated plots were determined at eight weeks after planting. The measurement was done by using a tailors measuring tape, and was obtained by measuring the whole length of the plant starting from the base of the first internode to the leaf whorl. The results were noted and recorded in centimeters (cm).

Determination of borer egg mass

The number of eggs on the treated and untreated plots was determined at eight weeks after planting. This was carried out with the aid of a 5 x 100mm hand held magnifier. The leaves, stems and sheaths were carefully checked for oviposition sites and egg deposits. The number of eggs found was noted and results recorded.

Determination of tunnel length of maize stems

Tunnel lengths in the stems caused by the tunneling activities of the stemborers were taken at harvest. Ten plants were randomly selected in each plot, and were split open using a kitchen knife. The tunnels found in each of the stems were traced using ropes (hair thread), the length of the ropes were then measured (in cm) with a measuring tape and the results were recorded.

Determination of population of borers and borer species

Borer population and species were determined at harvest. This was done after ten plants were randomly selected and the stems split. Population of the stemborers was recorded as the average number of larvae recovered in each plots. Stemborer species were determined after all the species were identified with reference Polazek (1998). The number of each species realized were counted separately and recorded.

Determination of percent lodged maizestems

The average number of lodged stems caused by the activities of the borers was also counted at harvest.This was done by quantifying and expressing stem lodging as a percentage of the total number of stems in each plot.

Determination of number of exit holes

The number of exit holes created by the borers was also investigated at harvest. Ten plants were randomly selected in each plot to check for exit holes. This was carried out by checking the stems carefully for exit holes and was done with the aid of a hand lens. The total number of exit holes in each plot were noted and recorded.

Determination of maize yield

Grain weight (yield) per plot was measured at harvest. It was carried out by harvesting all the maize cobs in each plot and packed in heaps. The harvested maize in each plot were dehusked and the maize cobs obtained were put in jute bags, the jute bags in each plots containing the maize cobs were placed on a 60 kilogram flat stainless plate spring mechanical balance. The weight of the grains in each plot were consequently noted and recorded. The computation was done to tonnes per hectare.

Data analysis

The data obtained was subjected to descriptive statistics to calculate the mean values and standard errors using the Microsoft excel, version 2010. The effects of the treatments on dead hearts, plant heights, egg mass, tunnel length, exit holes,borer population and maize yield, were analysed using ANOVA to check for the significant differences between mean values of the crops planted against the treatments. This was done using SPSS statistical software.

Results

Effects of plant leaf oils on dead hearts

The results obtained for the effect of insecticides (Andrographis paniculata leaf oil, Vernonia amygdalina leaf oil and carbofuran) on dead hearts in the study at six weeks after planting is shown in Table 1. The application of A. paniculata leaf oil and V. amygdalina leaf oil were as efficacious as carbofuran treatment in the reduction of deadheartt incidence when compared with untreated control (Plate 4). However, carbofuran treated plots produced lowest incidence of deadheart, followed by A. paniculata leaf oil at all rates. In carbofuran treated plots, the incidence of dead hearts reduced with increased rate of treatment, whereas, in A. paniculata treated plots, the incidence of dead hearts increased with increase rate of treatment application. Moreover, the V. amygdalina leafoil treated plots showed no increase in number of dead hearts with increased concentration, as plots treated with different concentrations of the oils produced similar results. Thus, in all the treated plots, carbofuran treated plots at the rate of 1.5g had the lowest incidence of dead heart (0.75%) while V. amygdalina leaf oil treated plots at all rates and A. paniculata leaf oil at 1.5 ml had highest incidence of dead heart (1.25%).

Table 1. Percent dead hearts on treated and untreated maize plots six weeks after planting.
Treatment Average percent dead hearts ± S.E
0.0* 1 1.5
A. paniculata 4.50 ±0.65 1.00 ± 0.41 1.25 ± 0.48
V. amygdalina 4.50 ±0.65 1.25 ± 0.48 1.25 ± 0.48
Carbofuran 4.50 ±0.65 1.00 ± 0.41 0.75 ± 0.48

Conclusion

Although the oils of A. paniculata and V. amygdalina rate applied did not completely eliminate stemborer species, it was effective in controlling their population on maize. Population of stemborers was reduced in plants treated with the oils which led to improved plant growth and yield. This study indicated that A. paniculata and V. amygdalina leaf oils can be applied to control maize stemborers in the field.

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